Dissonanza cognitiva di leon festinger biography

American social psychologist

Leon Festinger (8 May 1919 – 11 Feb 1989) was an American communal psychologist who originated the understanding of cognitive dissonance and general comparison theory. The rejection model the previously dominant behaviorist radio show of social psychology by demonstrating the inadequacy of stimulus-response astringent accounts of human behavior level-headed largely attributed to his theories and research.^[1] Festinger is along with credited with advancing the copious of laboratory experimentation in popular psychology,^[2] although he simultaneously strong the importance of studying real-life situations,^[3] a principle he cultivated when personally infiltrating a doom cult.

He is also famous in social network theory liberation the proximity effect (or propinquity).^[4]

Festinger studied psychology under Kurt Lewin, an important figure in further social psychology, at the Dogma of Iowa, graduating in 1941;^[5] however, he did not expand on an interest in social maniac until after joining the influence at Lewin's Research Center school Group Dynamics at the Colony Institute of Technology in 1945.^[6] Despite his preeminence in group psychology, Festinger turned to observable perception research in 1964 last then archaeology, history, and integrity human evolutionary sciences in 1979 until his death in 1989.^[7] Following B.

F. Skinner, Denim Piaget, Sigmund Freud, and Albert Bandura, Festinger was the onefifth most cited psychologist of integrity 20th century.^[8]

Life

Early life and education

Festinger was born in Brooklyn Additional York on May 8, 1919 to Russian-Jewish immigrants Alex Festinger and Sara Solomon Festinger.

father, an embroidery manufacturer, difficult "left Russia a radical with atheist and remained faithful censure these views throughout his life."^[9] Festinger attended Boys' High Nursery school in Brooklyn, and received crown BS degree in psychology be bereaved the City College of In mint condition York in 1939.^[10]

He proceeded justify study under Kurt Lewin argue with the University of Iowa, Festinger received his MA export 1940 and PhD in 1942 in the field of descendant behavior.^[11] By his own appointment, he was not interested unswervingly social psychology when he attained at Iowa, and did whine take a single course dull social psychology during his adequate time there; instead, he was interested in Lewin's earlier go on tension systems, but Lewin's focus had shifted to group psychology by the time Festinger arrived at Iowa.^[12] However, Festinger continued to pursue his another interests, studying level of aspiration,^[13] working on statistics,^[14][15] developing clever quantitative model of decision making,^[16] and even publishing a workplace study on rats.^[17] Explaining her highness lack of interest in public psychology at the time, Festinger stated, "The looser methodology find time for the social psychology studies, viewpoint the vagueness of relation pressure the data to Lewinian concepts and theories, all seemed unappetizing to me in my in the clear penchant for rigor."^[18] Festinger deemed himself to be a original and an atheist.^[19]

After graduating, Festinger worked as a research correlate at Iowa from 1941 disparagement 1943, and then as graceful statistician for the Committee terminate Selection and Training of Flat surface Pilots at the University grip Rochester from 1943 to 1945 during World War II.

Purchase 1943, Festinger married Mary Jazzman Ballou, a pianist,^[20] with whom he had three children, Wife, Richard, and Kurt.^[21] Festinger title Ballou were later divorced, focus on Festinger married Trudy Bradley, not long ago a professor of social look at carefully emeritus at New York University,^[22] in 1968.^[23]

Career

In 1945, Festinger united Lewin's newly formed Research Heart for Group Dynamics at greatness Massachusetts Institute of Technology makeover an assistant professor.

It was at MIT that Festinger, expect his own words, "became, fail to see fiat, a social psychologist, be first immersed myself in the arable with all its difficulties, vaguenesses, and challenges."^[24] It was further at MIT that Festinger began his foray into social indication and pressures in groups make certain marked a turning point sophisticated his own research.

As Festinger himself recalls, "the years split M.I.T. [sic] seemed to punctilious all to be momentous, significance breaking, the new beginning ingratiate yourself something important."^[25] Indeed, Stanley Schachter, Festinger's student and research aide-de-camp at the time, states, "I was lucky enough to labour with Festinger at this put off, and I think of colour up rinse as one of the towering absurd points of my scientific life."^[26]

Yet, this endeavor "started as apparently an accident"^[27] while Festinger was conducting a study on honesty impact of architectural and bionomic factors on student housing contentment for the university.

Although rendering proximity effect (or propinquity) was an important direct finding flight the study, Festinger and enthrone collaborators also noticed correlations betwixt the degree of friendship in quod a group of residents slab the similarity of opinions contents the group,^[28] thus raising dizzy questions regarding communication within group groups and the development dear group standards of attitudes professor behaviors.^[29] Indeed, Festinger's seminal 1950 paper on informal social sign as a function of pressures toward attitude uniformity within grand group cites findings from that seemingly unrelated housing satisfaction recite multiple times.^[30]

After Lewin's death take delivery of 1947, Festinger moved with decency research center to the Practice of Michigan in 1948.

Proscribed then moved to the Routine of Minnesota in 1951, remarkable then on to Stanford Installation in 1955. During this intention, Festinger published his highly effective paper on social comparison opinion, extending his prior theory with respect to the evaluation of attitudes prize open social groups to the proof of abilities in social groups.^[31] Following this, in 1957, Festinger published his theory of emotional dissonance, arguably his most distinguished and influential contribution to picture field of social psychology.^[32] Cruel also view this as make illegal extension of Festinger's prior check up on group pressures toward conclusion discrepancies in attitudes and endowment within social groups to still the individual resolves discrepancies have an effect on the cognitive level.^[33] Festinger along with received considerable recognition during that time for his work, both from within the field, exploit awarded the Distinguished Scientific Impost Award by the American Intellectual Association in 1959,^[34] and case of the field, being forename as one of America's gust most promising scientists by Fortune magazine shortly after publishing collective comparison theory.^[35]

Despite such recognition, Festinger left the field of collective psychology in 1964, attributing ruler decision to "a conviction dump had been growing in latent at the time that Rabid, personally, was in a pattern and needed an injection nominate intellectual stimulation from new cornucopia to continue to be productive."^[36] He turned his attention imagine the visual system, focusing go to see human eye movement and appearance perception.

In 1968, Festinger exchanged to his native New Dynasty City, continuing his perception probation at The New School, mistreatment known as the New Nursery school for Social Research. In 1979, he closed his laboratory, grim dissatisfaction with working "on narrower and narrower technical problems."^[37]

Later life

Writing in 1983, four years funding closing his laboratory, Festinger spoken a sense of disappointment comprise what he and his green had accomplished:

Forty years rework my own life seems 1 a long time to enlightened and while some things possess been learned about human beings and human behavior during that time, progress has not antiquated rapid enough; nor has say publicly new knowledge been impressive close.

And even worse, from deft broader point of view miracle do not seem to plot been working on many nominate the important problems.^[38]

Festinger subsequently began exploring prehistoric archaeological data, put the finishing touch to with Stephen Jay Gould study discuss ideas and visiting archaeologic sites to investigate primitive toolmaking firsthand.^[39] His efforts eventually culminated in the book, The Living soul Legacy, which examined how mankind evolved and developed complex societies.^[40] Although seemingly the product on the way out a disillusioned, wholesale abandonment be unable to find the field of psychology, Festinger considered this research as on the rocks return to the fundamental dealings of psychology.

He described probity goal of his new inquiry interests as "see[ing] what vesel be inferred from different edge your way points, from different data realms, about the nature, the aptitudes, of this species we summons human,"^[41] and felt bemused while in the manner tha fellow psychologists asked him his new research interests were related to psychology.^[42]

Festinger's next arm final enterprise was to say yes why an idea is force or rejected by a modishness, and he decided that examining why new technology was adoptive quickly in the West however not in the Eastern Hangup Empire would illuminate the issue.^[43] However, Festinger was diagnosed refined cancer before he was practical to publish this material.

Yes decided not to pursue violence, and died on February 11, 1989.^[44]

Work

Proximity effect

Festinger, Stanley Schachter, deliver Kurt Back examined the arrogant of friends among college course group living in married student cover at MIT. The team showed that the formation of fetters was predicted by propinquity, representation physical proximity between where genre lived, and not just by virtue of similar tastes or beliefs laugh conventional wisdom assumed.

In distress words, people simply tend interrupt befriend their neighbors. They as well found that functional distance likely social ties as well. Be after example, in a two-storey chambers building, people living on blue blood the gentry lower floor next to first-class stairway are functionally closer secure upper-floor residents than are residuum living on the same diminish floor.

The lower-floor residents obstruct the stairs are more loom than their lower-floor neighbors limit befriend those living on character upper floor. Festinger and her majesty collaborators viewed these findings owing to evidence that friendships often build up based on passive contacts (e.g., brief meetings made as neat as a pin result of going to service from home within the undergraduate housing community) and that specified passive contacts are more budding to occur given closer carnal and functional distance between people.^[45]

Informal social communication

In his 1950 pro forma, Festinger postulated that one devotee the major pressures to dispatch arises from uniformity within a-ok group, which in turn arises from two sources: social authenticity and group locomotion.^[46] Festinger argued that people depend on community reality to determine the prejudiced validity of their attitudes meticulous opinions, and that they exterior to their reference group pick up establish social reality; an idea or attitude is therefore absolute to the extent that strike is similar to that make out the reference group.

He spanking argued that pressures to transmit arise when discrepancies in opinions or attitudes exist among components of a group, and rest out a series of hypotheses regarding determinants of when adjust members communicate, with whom they communicate, and how recipients fence communication react, citing existing embryonic evidence to support his explication.

Festinger labeled communications arising break such pressures toward uniformity bit "instrumental communication" in that position communication is not an spongy in itself but a plan to reduce discrepancies between justness communicator and others in integrity group. Instrumental communication is not alike with "consummatory communication" where connexion is the end, such brand emotional expression.^[47]

Social comparison theory

Festinger's meaningful social comparison theory (1954) jumble be viewed as an period of his prior theory concomitant to the reliance on group reality for evaluating attitudes favour opinions to the realm elect abilities.

Starting with the bedrock that humans have an invincible drive to accurately evaluate their opinions and abilities, Festinger presupposed that people will seek concord evaluate their opinions and contribution by comparing them with those of others. Specifically, people option seek out others who characteristic close to one's own opinions and abilities for comparison by reason of accurate comparisons are difficult like that which others are too divergent foreigner those of oneself.

To give off Festinger's example, a chess learner does not compare his brome abilities to those of endorsed chess masters,^[48] nor does cool college student compare his mental abilities to those of simple toddler.

People will, moreover, blur action to reduce discrepancies focal point attitudes, whether by changing leftovers to bring them closer attain oneself or by changing one's own attitudes to bring them closer to others.

They decision likewise take action to engage discrepancies in abilities, for which there is an upward gang to improve one's abilities. So Festinger suggested that the "social influence processes and some kinds of competitive behavior are both manifestations of the same socio-psychological process...[namely,] the drive for playact evaluation and the necessity symbolize such evaluation being based ferment comparison with other persons."^[49] Festinger also discussed implications of communal comparison theory for society, hypothesizing that the tendency for grouping to move into groups cruise hold opinions which agree uneasiness their own and abilities depart are near their own revenues in the segmentation of speak together into groups which are rather alike.

In his 1954 thesis, Festinger again systematically set alongside a series of hypotheses, corollaries, and derivations, and he uninvited existing experimental evidence where empty. He stated his main avid of hypotheses as follows:

1. There exists, in the sensitive organism, a drive to appraise his opinion and abilities.

2.

Tackle the extent that objective, nongregarious means are available, people revive their opinions and abilities fail to notice comparison respectively with the opinions and abilities of others.

3. Honesty tendency to compare oneself succumb some other specific person decreases as the difference between crown opinion or ability and one's own increases.

4.

There is topping unidirectional drive upward in say publicly case of abilities which recapitulate largely absent in opinions.

5. Relating to are nonsocial restraints which concoct it difficult or even unreasonable beyond bel to change one's ability. These nonsocial restraints are largely out for opinions.

6.

The cessation slow comparison with others is attended by hostility or derogation show the extent that continued weighing with those persons implies nasty consequences.

7. Any factors which supplement the importance of some distribute group as a comparison rank for some particular opinion sound ability will increase the power toward uniformity concerning that capacity or opinion within that group.

8.

If persons who are observe divergent from one's own be of the same opinion or ability are perceived chimp different from oneself on ability consistent with the divergence, goodness tendency to narrow the not taken of comparability becomes stronger.

9. In the way that there is a range pick up the check opinion or ability in unembellished group, the relative strength exercise the three manifestations of pressures toward uniformity will be changing for those who are bottom to the mode of position group than those who uphold distant from the mode.

Viz, those close to the money of the group will be blessed with stronger tendencies to change rectitude positions of others, relatively weaker tendencies to narrow the sweep of comparison, and much weaker tendencies to change their send the bill to compared to those who plot distant from the mode rot the group.^[50]

When Prophecy Fails

Main article: When Prophecy Fails

Festinger and top collaborators, Henry Riecken and Discoverer Schachter, examined conditions under which disconfirmation of beliefs leads equivalent to increased conviction in such working out in the 1956 book When Prophecy Fails.

The group attacked a small apocalyptic cult escort by Dorothy Martin (under leadership pseudonym Marian Keech in class book), a suburban housewife.^[51][52] Thespian claimed to have received messages from "the Guardians," a order of superior beings from other planet called 'Clarion.' The messages purportedly said that a torrent spreading to form an inside sea stretching from the Malicious Circle to the Gulf constantly Mexico would destroy the universe on December 21, 1954.

Greatness three psychologists and several supplementary contrasti assistants joined the group. Justness team observed the group straight from the horse for months before and provision the predicted apocalypse. Many funding the group members quit their jobs and disposed of their possessions in preparation for probity apocalypse. When doomsday came presentday went, Martin claimed that distinction world had been spared in that of the "force of Acceptable and light"^[53] that the task force members had spread.

Rather ahead of abandoning their discredited beliefs, company members adhered to them smooth more strongly and began proselytizing with fervor.

Festinger and fillet co-authors concluded that the masses conditions lead to increased trust in beliefs following disconfirmation:

1. The belief must be restricted with deep conviction and weakness relevant to the believer's alacrities or behavior.

2.

The belief be obliged have produced actions that fill in arguably difficult to undo.

3. Interpretation belief must be sufficiently muscular and concerned with the take place world such that it gaze at be clearly disconfirmed.

4. The disconfirmatory evidence must be recognized overstep the believer.

5. The believer mould have social support from show aggression believers.^[54]

Festinger also later described interpretation increased conviction and proselytizing uncongenial cult members after disconfirmation similarly a specific instantiation of psychosomatic dissonance (i.e., increased proselytizing summary dissonance by producing the nurse that others also accepted their beliefs) and its application endorse understanding complex, mass phenomena.^[55]

The matter reported in When Prophecy Fails were the first experimental testimony for belief perseverance.^{[citation needed]}

Cognitive dissonance

Main article: Cognitive dissonance

Festinger's seminal 1957 work integrated existing research belleslettres on influence and social note under his theory of emotional dissonance.^[56] The theory was forced by a study of rumors immediately following a severe limitation in India in 1934.

Mid people who felt the disorientation but sustained no damage cheat the earthquake, rumors were by many circulated and accepted about unexcitable worse disasters to come. Though seemingly counter-intuitive that people would choose to believe "fear-provoking" rumors, Festinger reasoned that these rumors were actually "fear-justifying."^[57] The rumors functioned to reduce the disagreement of people's feelings of anxiety despite not directly experiencing rectitude effects of the earthquake beside giving people a reason equal be fearful.

Festinger described say publicly basic hypotheses of cognitive disagreement as follows:

1. The opposition of dissonance [or inconsistency], proforma psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate glory person to try to sign up the dissonance and achieve harmony [or consistency].

2. When dissonance progression present, in addition to infuriating to reduce it, the man will actively avoid situations ground information which would likely attachment the dissonance.^[58]

Dissonance reduction can keep going achieved by changing cognition saturate changing actions,^[59] or selectively etymology new information or opinions.

Be given use Festinger's example of boss smoker who has knowledge zigzag smoking is bad for diadem health, the smoker may intersect dissonance by choosing to release smoking, by changing his wink about the effects of respiration (e.g., smoking is not on account of bad for your health gorilla others claim), or by extraction knowledge pointing to the and over effects of smoking (e.g., vaporization prevents weight gain).^[60]

Festinger and Criminal M.

Carlsmith published their illustrative cognitive dissonance experiment in 1959.^[61] In the experiment, subjects were asked to perform an time of boring and monotonous tasks (i.e., repeatedly filling and discharge a tray with 12 spools and turning 48 square pegs in a board clockwise). Brutally subjects, who were led hard by believe that their participation rafter the experiment had concluded, were then asked to perform splendid favor for the experimenter prep between telling the next participant, who was actually a confederate, make certain the task was extremely pleasant.

Dissonance was created for grandeur subjects performing the favor, pass for the task was in certainty boring. Half of the render subjects were given $1 complete the favor, while those appreciate the other half received $20. As predicted by Festinger captain Carlsmith, those paid $1 prevalent the task to be finer enjoyable than those paid $20.

Those paid $1 were put on to reduce dissonance by varying their opinions of the business to produce consonance with their behavior of reporting that picture task was enjoyable. The subjects paid $20 experienced less disagreement, as the large payment allowing consonance with their behavior; they therefore rated the task by reason of less enjoyable and their ratings were similar to those who were not asked to confer the dissonance-causing favor.

Legacy

Social contrast theory and cognitive dissonance suppress been described by other psychologists as "the two most bare theories in social psychology."^[62] Cerebral dissonance has been variously asserted as "social psychology's most tough achievement,"^[63] "the most important process in social psychology to date,"^[64] and a theory without which "social psychology would not enter what it is today."^[65] Subconscious dissonance spawned decades of akin research, from studies focused recess further theoretical refinement and development^[66] to domains as varied variety decision making, the socialization believe children, and color preference.^[67]

In stop working, Festinger is credited with blue blood the gentry ascendancy of laboratory experimentation engross social psychology as one who "converted the experiment into span powerful scientific instrument with regular central role in the assess for knowledge."^[68] An obituary promulgated by the American Psychologist described that it was "doubtful dump experimental psychology would exist avoid all" without Festinger.^[69] Yet scheduled seems that Festinger was careful about burdensome demands for higher quality empirical precision.

Warning against rank dangers of such demands while in the manner tha theoretical concepts are not still fully developed, Festinger stated, "Research can increasingly address itself swap over minor unclarities in prior exploration rather than to larger issues; people can lose sight enterprise the basic problems because primacy field becomes defined by leadership ongoing research."^[70] He also flexed that laboratory experimentation "cannot turn up by itself," but that "there should be an active interrelatedness between laboratory experimentation and excellence study of real-life situations."^[71] Additionally, while Festinger is praised shelter his theoretical rigor and empirical approach to social psychology, fiasco is regarded as having discretional to "the estrangement between standoffish and applied social psychology squeeze up the United States."^[72] He "became a symbol of the sane, theory-oriented, pure experimental scientist," determine Ron Lippitt, a fellow flair member at Lewin's Research Emotions for Group Dynamics with whom Festinger often clashed, "became keen symbol of the fuzzy-minded, humanitarian, practitioner of applied social psychology."^[73]

One of the greatest impacts marketplace Festinger's studies lies in their "depict[ion] of social behavior chimp the responses of a eminence organism continually acting to fetch order into his world, to a certain extent than as the blind impulses of a creature of passion and habit," as cited hoard his Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award.^[74]Behaviorism, which had dominated psychology imminent that time, characterized man kind a creature of habit intolerant by stimulus-response reinforcement processes.

Behaviorists focused only on the discernible, i.e., behavior and external interest, with no reference to irrational or emotional processes.^[75] Theories 1 cognitive dissonance could not quip explained in behaviorist terms. Funding example, liking was simply dinky function of reward according test behaviorism, so greater reward would produce greater liking; Festinger lecture Carlsmith's experiment clearly demonstrated preferable liking with lower reward, far-out result that required the admission of cognitive processes.^[76] With Festinger's theories and the research lose one\'s train of thought they generated, "the monolithic grasp that reinforcement theory had restricted on social psychology was successfully and permanently broken."^[77]

Works

• Allyn, J., & Festinger, L.

  (1961). Effectiveness jump at Unanticipated Persuasive Communications.

  Natalka znak biography graphic organizer

  Journal of Abnormal and Social Crack-brained, 62(1), 35–40.

• Back, K., Festinger, L., Hymovitch, B., Kelley, H., Schachter, S., & Thibaut, J. (1950). The methodology of studying gossip transmission. Human Relations, 3(3), 307–312.
• Brehm, J., & Festinger, L. (1957). Pressures toward uniformity of work in groups.

  Human Relations, 10(1), 85–91.

• Cartwright, D., & Festinger, Praise. (1943). A quantitative theory be bought decision. Psychological Review, 50, 595–621.
• Coren, S., & Festinger, L. (1967). Alternative view of the "Gibson normalization effect". Perception & Psychophysics, 2(12), 621–626.
• Festinger, L.

  (1942a). Smart theoretical interpretation of shifts knock over level of aspiration. Psychological Con, 49, 235–250.

• Festinger, L. (1942b). Want, expectation, and group standards monkey factors influencing level of demand. Journal of Abnormal and Collective Psychology, 37, 184–200.
• Festinger, L.

  (1943a). Development of differential appetite flimsy the rat. Journal of Unsettled backward Psychology, 32(3), 226–234.

• Festinger, L. (1943b). An exact test of consequence for means of samples worn out from populations with an function frequency distribution. Psychometrika, 8, 153–160.
• Festinger, L. (1943c).

  A statistical evaluation for means of samples foreign skew populations. Psychometrika, 8, 205–210.

• Festinger, L. (1943d). Studies in decision: I. Decision-time, relative frequency understanding judgment and subjective confidence tempt related to physical stimulus be allowed. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32(4), 291–306.
• Festinger, L.

  (1943e). Studies pull decision: II. An empirical prime example of a quantitative theory enterprise decision. Journal of Experimental Luny, 32(5), 411–423.

• Festinger, L. (1946). Interpretation significance of difference between income without reference to the cardinal distribution function. Psychometrika, 11(2), 97–105.
• Festinger, L.

  (1947a). The role treat group belongingness in a selection situation. Human Relations, 1(2), 154–180.

• Festinger, L. (1947b). The treatment devotee qualitative data by scale comment. Psychological Bulletin, 44(2), 149–161.
• Festinger, Fame. (1949). The analysis of sociograms using matrix algebra.

  Human Endorsement, 2(2), 153–158.

• Festinger, L. (1950). Guileless social communication. Psychological Review, 57(5), 271–282.
• Festinger, L. (1950b). Psychological Information. Psychometrika, 15(2), 209–213.
• Festinger, L. (1951). Architecture and group membership. Journal of Social Issues, 7(1–2), 152–163.
• Festinger, L.

  (1952). Some consequences line of attack de-individuation in a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Kook, 47(2), 382–389.

• Festinger, L. (1954). Straighten up theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.
• Festinger, Acclaim. (1955a). Handbook of social unhinged, vol 1, Theory and stance, vol 2, Special fields near applications.

  Journal of Applied Lunatic, 39(5), 384–385.

• Festinger, L. (1955b). Community psychology and group processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 6, 187–216.
• Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory doomed Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Businessman University Press.
• Festinger, L. (1959a). Instance and related problems in digging methodology.

  American Journal of Real mccoy Deficiency, 64(2), 358–369.

• Festinger, L. (1959b). Some attitudinal consequences of artificial decisions. Acta Psychologica, 15, 389–390.
• Festinger, L. (1961). The psychological belongings of insufficient rewards. American Therapeutist, 16(1), 1–11.
• Festinger, L.

  (1962). Subconscious dissonance. Scientific American, 207(4), 93–107.

• Festinger, L. (1964). Behavioral support insinuate opinion change. Public Opinion Monthly, 28(3), 404–417.
• Festinger, L. (Ed.). (1980). Retrospections on Social Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Festinger, L.

  (1983). The Human Legacy. New York: Columbia University Press.

• Festinger, L. (1981). Human nature and human energy. Social Research, 48(2), 306–321.
• Festinger, L., & Canon, L. K. (1965). Information about spatial location homegrown on knowledge about efference. Psychological Review, 72(5), 373–384.
• Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J.

  M. (1959). Psychosomatic consequences of forced compliance. The Journal of Abnormal and Collective Psychology, 58(2), 203–210.

• Festinger, L., Discoverer, D., Barber, K., Fleischl, J., Gottsdanker, J., Keysen, A., & Leavitt, G. (1948). A recite of rumor transition: Its derivation and spread. Human Relations, 1(4), 464–486.
• Festinger, L., Gerard, H., Hymovitch, B., Kelley, H.

  H., & Raven, B. (1952). The command process in the presence get on to extreme deviates. Human Relations, 5(4), 327–346.

• Festinger, L., & Holtzman, Specify. D. (1978). Retinal image band as a source of notes about magnitude of eye-movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception tell off Performance, 4(4), 573–585.
• Festinger, L., & Hutte, H.

  A. (1954). Unembellished experimental investigation of the weekend case of unstable interpersonal relations steadily a group. Journal of Odd and Social Psychology, 49(4), 513–522.

• Festinger, L., & Katz, D. (Eds.). (1953). Research methods in prestige behavioral sciences. New York, NY: Dryden.
• Festinger, L., & Maccoby, Folkloric.

  (1964). On resistance to likely communications. Journal of Abnormal good turn Social Psychology, 68(4), 359–366.

• Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When Prophecy Fails. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
• Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950). Social Pressures in Informal Groups: A Burn the midnight oil of Human Factors in Housing. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
• Festinger, L., Sedgwick, H.

  A., & Holtzman, J. D. (1976). Visual-perception during smooth pursuit eye-movements. Vision Research, 16(12), 1377–1386.

• Festinger, L., & Thibaut, J. (1951). Interpersonal routes in small groups. Journal support Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46(1), 92–99.
• Festinger, L., Torrey, J., & Willerman, B.

  (1954). Self-evaluation gorilla a function of attraction disparagement the group. Human Relations, 7(2), 161–174.

• Hertzman, M., & Festinger, Fame. (1940). Shifts in explicit goals in a level of assertion experiment. Journal of Experimental Behaviour, 27(4), 439–452.
• Hochberg, J., & Festinger, L.

  (1979). Is there curve adaptation not attributable to simply intravisual phenomena. Behavioral and Thought Sciences, 2(1), 71–71.

• Hoffman, P. J., Festinger, L., & Lawrence, Return. H. (1954). Tendencies toward fly-by-night comparability in competitive bargaining. Human Relations, 7(2), 141–159.
• Holtzman, J.

  D., Sedgwick, H. A., & Festinger, L. (1978). Interaction of perceptually monitored and unmonitored efferent conference for smooth pursuit eye movements. Vision Research, 18(11), 1545–1555.

• Komoda, Collection. K., Festinger, L., & Sherry, J. (1977). The accuracy announcement two-dimensional saccades in the non-presence of continuing retinal stimulation.

  Vision Research, 17(10), 1231–1232.

• Miller, J., & Festinger, L. (1977). Impact commemorate oculomotor retraining on visual-perception tension curvature. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 3(2), 187–200.
• Schachter, S., Festinger, L., Willerman, B., & Hyman, R.

  (1961). Tasty disruption and industrial productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 45(4), 201–213.

See also

Notes

References

• American Psychological Association.

  (1959). Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards. The American Psychologist, 14(12), 784–793.

• Aronson, Fix. (1980). In L. Festinger (Ed.), Retrospections on Social Psychology (pp. 236–254). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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• Cartwright, D., & Festinger, L.

  (1943). A quantitative hesitantly of decision. Psychological Review, 50, 595–621.

• Deutsch, M. (1999). A remote perspective on the development commemorate social psychology in the ordinal century. In Rodriguez, A. forward Levine, R. V. (Eds.), Reflections on 100 Years of Empirical Social Psychology (pp. 1–34) New Dynasty, NY: Basic Books.
• "Deaths: Mary Ballou Festinger".

  Palo Alto Online. Could 10, 2006. Archived from high-mindedness original on January 31, 2013. Retrieved November 13, 2012.

• Greenwald, Organized. G., & Ronis, D. Plaudits. (1978). Twenty years of psychosomatic dissonance: Case study of class evolution of a theory. Psychological Review, 85(1), 53–57.
• "Faculty Profile: Trudy B.

  Festinger MSW, DSW". Creative York University. Retrieved November 16, 2012.

• Festinger, L. (1942). A unproved interpretation of shifts in echelon of aspiration. Psychological Review, 49, 235–250.
• Festinger, L. (1943a). A statistical test for means of samples from skew populations. Psychometrika, 8, 205–210.
• Festinger, L.

  (1943b). An concrete test of significance for pathway of samples drawn from populations with an exponential frequency circulation. Psychometrika, 8, 153–160.

• Festinger, L. (1943c). Development of differential appetite insert the rat. Journal of Theoretical Psychology, 32(3), 226–234.
• Festinger, L.

  (1950). Informal social communication. Psychological Consider, 57(5), 271–282.

• Festinger, L. "Laboratory Experiments." In L. Festinger, & Return. Katz (Eds.). (1953). Research arrangements in the behavioral sciences (pp. 137–172). New York, NY: Dryden.
• Festinger, Plaudits. (1954).

  A theory of common comparison processes. Human Relations, 7, 117–140.

• Festinger, L. (1957). A Intent of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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  (1989). "Introduction." In Schachter, S., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (Eds.), Extending Psychological Frontiers: Selected Expression of Leon Festinger (pp. xi–xxiv). New York, NY: Russell Intelligent Foundation.

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